Clergy Training Program Essays

Essays that are part of the Coursework for the Clergy Training Program

Indo-European Studies 1

  1. Describe several of the factors that define a culture as Indo-European and how those defining factors are useful in understanding that culture. (minimum 300 words)

There are several factors that define a culture as Indo-European.  The big three factors as they apply to the study of Our Druidry are having the same root language, having similar social or class structures, and having similar myth cycles.  Each of these three is important when studying Indo-European cultures in general because with those three factors combined, it is possible to postulate regarding aspects of each Indo-European culture that is missing sources from other Indo-European cultures that have that information documented.  It allows us to better flesh out each culture and better understand how the context of the culture impacted the life and the religion of the people.

The cultures we define as Indo-European all have language that root back to the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language.  Having this same root language allows us to reconstructive certain deities and worship practices based on the tracing the roots of other cultures back.  For instance, we can look at language to see the similarities in various deities. The Thundering Sky God is a strong archetype present across the Indo-European cultures, and in Greek myth Zeus “is in name identical with the old Vedic sky-god Dyaus (Indo-European *Dyews ‘Bright Sky’)” (Puhvel 130).  Similarly the Norse Thor shares a root with the Gaulish Taranis, both reducing to *thunar-, meaning thunder (169).  The similarities in the roots of the deity names are a way that we can reconstruct an archetypical deity for a certain culture that doesn’t have a reliable record or complete record of one existing.  This same method holds true for important cultural rituals, such as rites of passage and celebrations linked to the seasons.

Indo-European cultures also have a similar social or class structure in place.  This is commonly referred to as Dumezil’s Theory of Tripartition, which will be discussed in more detail in question 2.  In general, this is the theory that there are three general classes of people that all must exist in a society and all play an important role to that society.  The three classes are the priestly class, the warrior class, and the agricultural class.  None can exist without the other and they work together to maintain a culturally rich society.  This tripartition is important to understanding the culture because it allows us to compare the functions of the deities of that culture to the people that culture.  This allows us to better understand their values and why they exist and are observed in the forms that they are.

The third factor that gives us a better understanding of Indo-European cultures is each cultures myth cycles.  There are various archetypes that appear across Indo-European cultures.  These archetypes that present themselves in the various myths give us a wealth of information that can be used to help reconstruct myths, or at least give us general information about a specific culture.  For example, in cultures that are missing archetypical myths, such as a creation myth for the Celts, or any wealth of Gaulish information, the lack of a myth doesn’t mean that one didn’t exist, simply that we don’t have the records of it anymore.  So having the ability to cross-reference all the different Indo-European cultures allows us to gives a better understanding of the similarities and differences about each myth in each culture, as well as allowing us to fill in the missing pieces a little more reliably.

 

  1. George Dumezil’s theory of tripartition has been central to many modern approaches to Indo-European studies. Outline Dumezil’s three social functions in general, and as they appear in one particular Indo-European society. Offer your opinion as to whether you believe Dumezil’s claim that tripartition is central to IE cultures. (minimum 300 words)

George Dumezil’s Theory of Tripartition is the theory that the there are three classes of people in (Proto)Indo- European cultures.  Additionally, not only does this division of classes occur among the people of that society, but it is also reflected in the pantheon that is particular to that hearth culture.  The three classes that are present across these (Proto)Indo-European cultures are the class of priests (the sacral class), the class of warriors (the martial class), and the class of herders and cultivators (the economic class) (Mallory 130-1).

Using Ancient Greece as an example, the priestly class, or the class of sovereignty, had kings as well as priests serving this function.  The gods within this class include Zeus and Hera, and arguably Apollo.  Zeus and Hera were often referred to as the King and Queen of the gods.  The kings of the various city-states honored both the patron of their city, as well as giving honor to Zeus for his role as the dispenser of justice.  Apollo is the most commonly associated with prophecy and magic, two things that fell most often to the priestly class (Mallory 131-2).

The warrior class consisted of those members of society who were either on the defensive or offensive. The hoplites that served in the various armies, as well as the naval and cavalry forces would fall into this class.  The gods within this class include Ares and Athena, and arguably Artemis and Poseidon (both of whom may also fall within the economic class depending on the task at hand).  Ares is often referred to as the god of military prowess, courage, and brute strength, whereas Athena is praised for her tactical prowess and wisdom in the cunning that accompanies a victory.  Artemis, while primarily regarding as a deity of the hunt, is also honored as a protector of children, allowing her fall within the defensive military realm.  Her skill with the bow also gives her a place as a warrior.  Poseidon is primarily known as a sea deity, but he is who gave horses to man, allowing a cavalry to exist.  And while his blessing is necessary for fishing and gaining things from the sea, it is also required for naval support, as evidenced by the many myths that involve his refuses navies to set sail, or throwing ships full of warriors off course (Mallory 131-2).

The third class, the economic class, consisted of the majority of the common people, as well as a majority of the gods.  These people were the farmers and the tradesmen.  They were involved in tasks that relate to productivity and a strong economy.  The gods that fall into this class are Demeter, Dionysos, Hermes, Hephaestus, Aphrodite, and Hestia, and arguably Athena, as well as Artemis and Poseidon, as mentioned above.  Demeter is associated with farming and the grains of the earth. Dionysos is associated with the cultivation and processing of fruits.  Hermes is the patron of shepherds and herdsmen, as well as the patron of tradesmen, merchants, and thieves.  Hephaestus is the patron of people who make things with their hands and craftsmen, specifically of the forge.  Aphrodite is a fertility figure.  Hestia is the goddess of the hearth and the home, and thus of all the people.  Athena, while known for her tactical genius, is also the goddess of wisdom and of crafts, specifically processed goods such as textiles (Mallory 131-2).

I do think that Dumezil’s claim that tripartition is central to Indo-European cultures is a valid one.  I think these three classes can be found within every Indo-European society, as well as each Indo-European pantheon.  I think some of the specifics may be hard to find within culture, such as the horse association with the third function, or, as demonstrated above, some of the deities may fall within multiple functions. I’m also not sure that this tripartition is specific to Indo-Europeans, or if it is a theory that could be applied to every human society (Mallory 130-135).

 

  1. Choose one Indo-European culture and describe briefly the influences that have shaped it and distinguish it from other Indo-European derived cultures. Examples include migration, contact with other cultures, changes in religion, language, and political factors. Is there any sense in which this culture can be said to have stopped being an Indo-European culture? (minimum 300 words)

The Greeks are one of the earliest Indo-European civilizations that developed.  They were likely an invasive population that moved through the Mediterranean area because they were following the same route that farming and agriculture took as it spread.  There is evidence that “in earlier times there were two races living in Greece: the Pelasgians; who never left their original home, and the Hellenes (Greeks), who frequently migrated” (Mallory 68).  This account by Herodotus reflects the theory that the Greeks moved into the area and absorbed another culture on their migration.

Some of the evidence that suggests they absorbed an indigenous culture comes from an examination of the Greek language. There is much linguistic evidence that that the Greeks borrowed considerably from a non-Greek language in a calculated manner that suggests they incorporated words that are specific to the resources and knowledge of that indigenous culture (Mallory 68).

The Greeks also had contact with other cultures from all sides.  Notably they had the Persians to the north, India to the east, Egypt to the south, and later Rome to the west.  The Persian in the north was where the majority of the military conflict arose.  In some cases the Persians invaded Greece, and on other occasions Greece invaded Persia.  There is evidence of some imported deities from the east, such as Dionysos, and perhaps Artemis and Poseidon.  Later there was mixing with the Egyptians and their culture.  An incorporation of some Egyptian deities, specifically in magic work, occurred.  This can be seen in the Greek Papyri.

As far as politics are concerned, initially Athens and Sparta were the dominating city-states, but with military conflict this shifted.  The Peloponnesian War led to the downfall of Athens and Thebes and Macedon eventually became leading powers, overshadowing their predecessors.  Macedon eventually united the city-states in the League of Corinth, which was led by Alexander the Great.  Alexander the Great is who led The Empire, however following the confusion after his death Greece eventually became one of the regions protected by the Roman Empire (“Greece”).

When taking into account the hallmarks of an Indo-European culture, such as the common root language, the similar social structures, and a common myth cycle, I think Greece can still be considered Indo-European.  They still speak a language that finds the roots of the majority of its words in proto-Indo-European.  They still have three basic classes of people: the ruling class, though it now may have less clergy participating within this class and more government officials and law makers; the warrior class, who now also include protectors of the people and city, such as policemen, as well as traditional military figures; and the economic class functioning much as it always has because the need for food and trade continues throughout cultural changes.  The final aspect, the common myth cycle, is still present within the culture, though neither it nor the pantheon are followed and worshiped as the primary religion of the area.  However, I think this lack of a current majority of followers of the old religion does not preclude current Greece from continuing to be an Indo-European civilization.

 

  1. Choose one other Indo-European culture and compare and contrast it to the culture discussed in question 3 above with respect to each culture’s Indo-European nature.(minimum 300 words)

Considered by some sources to be the homeland for Indo-Europeans, the early Vedics set a standard for what is seem in many, if not all other Indo-European cultures (Winn 333).  When discussing migration, while the Greeks moved from the east and eventually settled along the Mediterranean coast and surrounding areas, the Vedics appear to have migrated from the Iran and Afghanistan areas into what is now India.  This migration happened at the same time the Indo-Iranians were migrating.  So, while the Greeks migrated into a new area and then came in contact with an indigenous culture, it seems likely that the Vedics and Indo-Iranians came in contact with each other while both were migrating, though it is debated in what order they came in contact and in what region (Winn 186-7).

The Vedas were written down no later than 1400 BCE, which was around the same time that the migration from the Indo-Iranian lands to northwest India occurred.  Unlike the Greek language, which appears to have borrowed extensively from the indigenous culture, the text of the Indic text of the Rig Veda bears enough resemblance and parallels to the Iranian language that it is almost certain the two cultures had extended contact during which time their languages evolved alongside each other (Winn 187).  It was at first assumed that Sanskrit was the mother of the Indo-European languages, though upon further examination it is generally agreed upon now that it is a sister language to the Indo-European family tree of languages, all of which date back to an even earlier Proto-Indo-European language (Ford).  Sanskrit has been used extensively in the reconstruction of the PIE language, while the other IE languages, including Greek, have been used to aid and verify the reconstructed words (Winn 333-4).

The Vedic religion has gone through changes and evolutions in religion, most notably transitioning from the ancient worship of Vedic deities as they are mentioned in the Vedas, to the modern religion of Hinduism.  At first this appears to be similar to how the Ancient Greek religion evolved as more and more ancient poets wrote hymns and other texts, slowly altering the perception of the deities, and eventually splitting off into their Roman and later forms.  However, within the Vedic society as more texts were added, the focus of worship shifted into a less Indo-European polytheistic practice observing the tripartition of classes and placing an importance on ritual, and moved more towards a monism practice focusing on the ideas of all things being one and individual reflection more than ritual practice (Winn 187-9).

In the same way that Greece can still be considered and Indo-European culture, I think the Indic culture can still be considered Indo-European.  While it may not follow the same religion as it did in ancient times, it still displays the hallmarks of an Indo-European society with its common root language and observance of social structures, particularly with India’s caste system.

 

  1. From its beginnings, ADF has defined itself in relation to Indo-European pagan traditions. What relevance do you think historical and reconstructed IE traditions from the past have in constructing or reconstructing a Pagan spirituality for the present and future? (minimum 600 words)

ADF has defined itself as a neo-pagan religion that focuses on the cultural and religious practices of Indo-European traditions.  There are a few points that need to be made regarding this focus: the difference between reconstruction and reimagination, how this applies to the focus on reputable sources, and the depth and community of the new religion that results from these sources.  These three points are relevant to the continued growth of ADF because of the ways they allow us to move towards a deeper and more meaningful spirituality.

First, I think it is extremely relevant that ADF is a neo-pagan religion, rather than a reconstructionist religion.  By reimagining the practices of the Indo-European cultures we’re able to move towards things that will allow ADF to continue to progress towards a mainstream religion.  It also allows us to maintain a path that will continue for multiple generations rather than the few that so often happens with new religions.  Our ability to reimagine, rather than reconstruct allows us to take the best pieces from the ancient religion and culture, and leave behind those which no longer apply to our current society and modern culture.  We are able to apply the social justices we’ve learned over the centuries to our new religion.  By doing this we are acknowledging that religion evolves over time, and are making an educated guess at the direction the worship practices would have gone.  Overall, this means that knowing the historical Indo-European traditions is imperative to both reconstruction and reimagination of those traditions.

Second, when beginning the process of this reimagination it is relevant to ADF’s practice that we focus on scholarly work and reputable sources.  These sources are about the historical traditions of the ancient Indo-European cultures. This focus allows for both accurate reconstructed practices and better guesses at what those practices would look like if they had continued to evolve.  Because of this focus on scholarly work, members of ADF are given opportunities to study the ancient religions and beta-test new ideas.  If these new ideas work, they then have the sources to back up what they’ve done, and thus continue the path of Our Druidry through the present and into the future.  Being able to draw from these historical traditions is relevant to ADF.

Finally, most relevant to the continuing ADF spiritual community, it is important to answer the question, “Why restrict cultures to only Indo-European ones?” or “Why allow more than one culture?” This is important for a number of reasons.  Due to the commonalities that Indo-European cultures share, it allows for a common discourse and a common ground between members who worship following the practices of many different hearths.  Also, by allowing all Indo-European cultures to be represented it allows for a broader community base in a religion that has a minority following it.  It also allows for the common language that all ADF members can relate to, such as discussion of the Three Kindreds, the Earth Mother, and the Gatekeeper.  In addition, by focusing solely on Indo-European cultures we can draw deeply from a few sources, rather than shallowly from many.  This allows for less inconsistencies or discrepancies within a ritual when blending multiple cultures.  All these reasons for focusing on the historical traditions of ancient Indo-European cultures, and the ways they are now reconstructed and reimagined make the resulting religion that ADF is fostering a more coherent and valuable whole.

 

Bibliography:

Ford, Clark, Ph. D. “Early World History: Indo-Europeans to the Middle Ages.” Iowa State University. N.p., Fall 2012. Web. 02 Jan. 2013. <http://www.public.iastate.edu/~cfford/342worldhistoryearly.html>.

“Greece.” Topic Pages. Boston: Credo Reference Contributors, 2013. N. pag. Credo Reference. 1 Jan. 2013. Web. 1 Jan. 2013. <http://www.credoreference.com/topic/greece>.

Mallory, J. P. In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth. New York, NY: Thames and Hudson, 1989. Print.

Puhvel, Jaan. Comparative Mythology. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1987. Print.

 Winn, Shan M. M. Heaven, Heroes, and Happiness: The Indo-European Roots of Western Ideology. Lanham: University of America, 1995. Print.

Liturgy Practicum 1: Requirement 1

Requirement #1: Key concepts from required reading:

1.  What three factors (“subcategories”) does Bonewits identify as determining the impact of “familiarity” on the success of a ritual? Briefly discuss the ways in which personal or family-only ritual is aided or hindered by these factors when compared to public group ritual. (Minimum 100 words)

The three factors that Bonewits identifies as determining the impact of “familiarity” on the success of a ritual are knowledge, affection, and group identity.  These three aspects of intra-group familiarity are what help to create and maintain the group mind necessary in ritual space.  The group mind is needed in order to raise and use mana, or energy.  Knowledge creates intellectual and social bonds, affection creates emotional bonds, and group identity creates psychological bonds.  The better these aspects can be developed and nurtured, the greater the psychic bonds will be that fuel the group mind.  In general, “having more people present makes more mana available, yet also makes it harder to keep that mana focused” (Bonewits 58).

Knowledge can be defined as what skill sets you have present at a ritual.  Are some people good at singing and chanting, others good at drumming, and still others who are excellent at visualizing?  In order to accommodate varying levels of knowledge the folks leading ritual may need to put strong vocalists next to weaker one, or have a strong mother beat in a drum set, or keep visualizations shorter or better guided to help folk maintain focus.  This is all a matter of differentiating the ritual to best serve the needs of the folk so that the needs of the Earth and the purpose of the ritual can be served.  A personal or family-only ritual means that you have less specialized skills to draw on, but that less accommodations may need to be made.

Affection can be defined as the genuine bonds of friendship and love that exist between people.  Lovers and family members will have the strongest bonds, followed by friends, and then by acquaintances.  These bonds can be nurtured to help have a stronger connection and stronger group mind.  In a personal or family-only ritual the affection level is likely very high unless there is a lot of strife in the family.  This means that the bonds that exist will be much stronger and the energy more accessible because the group mind is easier to maintain.

Group identity can be defined as the specific identity for the group.  The more narrow it is, the stronger the identity is among the groups’ members.  For example, I consider myself not just a Pagan, not just an ADF Druid, but also a Crane.  At Three Cranes Grove rituals, this common identity allows us to have more focused group mind.  We can reinforce it by the common things we do at every ritual that bind us together, such as reciting Serith’s “The waters support and surround us…” prayer.  A personal or family-only ritual will end up having a very narrow group identity, so the bond between participants in this aspect would be very strong.

The benefits of personal or family-only ritual is that an intimate group of people is far more likely to have more things in common than a larger group of people who have less contact with each other.  This means that there is less fumbling with scripts, a more open sense of community and less fear of judgment, and a likelihood, though not necessity, that similar deities will be worshiped.  In a public group ritual, if not everyone is familiar with each other, there may be hesitancy in sharing, or making offerings.  There may also be disruptions in the flow of ritual as the congregants are not sure what part to expect coming up.  In addition, there are likely to be many different pantheons represented in the congregants’ beliefs, which can lead to a chaotic feeling in ritual, or hurt feelings on the part of those participating.  However, despite these possible problems, there is also a benefit to group rituals.  More energy can be raised and directed, more diverse styles of liturgy are represented, and more can be attempted and accomplished because of the broader range of skills available to the congregation.

 

2.  What six methods of prayer does Ceisiwr Serith describe? Briefly suggest an example of how you might employ each in your personal worship practices. You may include worship with a group if applicable. (Minimum 200 words)

Praying Through Words

Praying with words is perhaps the most obvious way of praying.  I couple most of my prayers with words, though a few remain silent or only observable through other means.  Most notably when I call to the Kindreds and my Patrons I speak with words for them to hear me.  I find the words to be a good focus, and a way of reminding myself that I’m talking to someone, not just talking.  I also take great joy in writing, and have applied that to writing various thing including spoken prayers.

Praying Through Posture

Depending on what I am doing, my posture will alter.  When calling to the Earth Mother I will either crouch down on the balls of my feet and put my fingertips on the ground, or I will kneel in seiza, and then lean over to place my forearms on the ground, with my hands forming a diamond and my forehead placed between them.  When I call to Hestia I have a lighter or match in my right hand and her candle flame in my left. I hold the candle chest level while I speak the prayer to her, and then light the candle and set it down.  My Grove has adopted certain postures for calling to each of the Kindreds that I use fairly often, though not all the time.  When calling to the Ancestors we look and reach towards the ground, palms parallel to and facing the ground.  When calling to the nature spirits we reach out to our sides, looking levelly across the earth, arms bent at the elbows and palms facing in towards the center flame.  When we call to the Shining Ones we reach up and look towards the sky, arms extended and palms facing up.

Praying Through Motion

In Hellenic ritual it is important to separate the mundane space from the sacred space.  I keep this by washing at least my hands before a ritual for purification and then processing into the space I will be conducting the ritual.  I then recess out after the ritual.  I’ve found this is very helpful in getting into a ritual mindset where I can focus on the work at hand and not be so worried about the mundane things going on outside the rite.  In addition, as I mentioned above, there are times when I deliberately shift from one posture to another depending on what I am doing and who I am calling. One of the things that Serith specifically mentions is walking in circles, especially clockwise circles, around the sacred space.  My home shrine backs up against a wall and my fireplace, so I don’t walk circles at home.  I do however use circle motions when opening and closing the gates (clockwise for opening, and counterclockwise for closing), and when I do outdoor rituals I circle the space spreading barley, incense smoke, and/or water for purification.  At my home shrine I cense the altar top in a circle motion, moving clockwise, though it is not truly moving in a complete circle around the space.

Praying Through Dance

I have not tried dancing in my own personal rites, at least not in the traditional sense of the word ‘dance.’  I have found kata, or martial arts forms, to be extremely beneficial to me as a method of meditation and prayer.  It helps to clear my mind and allow more thoughts to enter unimpeded.  In a group ritual I led a Crane Dance that I wrote for a magical working.  The intent was to raise energy to break away the chains of our lives that were holding us back.  It is described in more detail in my journal.  Dance can also be used for ecstatic trance, though I have not tried this either.

Praying Through Music

Praying through music is one of the ways I like praying best.  Whether it is instrumental or with voice, I find it very rewarding.  Certain chords can strike certain moods or certain thoughts in a person, and I can strum through a progression on my guitar and achieve a mental state similar to others ways of praying.  When combined with words, music gains even more for me.  I sing my prayers to some of the Kindreds, specifically the Muses.  I chant other parts of ritual, or other invocations.

Praying Through Gestures

Praying with gestures often coincides with magical work for me, in one form or another.  When I make offerings, I pour oil or wine, or sprinkle oats, corn meal, or barley.  It is not just the physical offering that I give, but it is the act of pouring or sprinkling that is also part of the offering and sends the gift to the Kindreds.  When opening and closing the gates, I move my hands in a spiral either opening or closing my fist.

 

3. What arguments does Ceisiwr Serith make in support of set prayers (as opposed to spontaneous prayers)? Discuss how these arguments apply (or do not apply) to solitary Pagan prayer. (Minimum 200 words)

Serith argues that set prayers offer many benefits as opposed to spontaneous prayers.  I believe that both types have their place in ritual and worship.  The first point Serith makes regarding set prayers is that from a historical point of view we are following the way of the ancient when we speak a set prayer.  In Vedic religion one of the ancient source is the Rig Veda, which is literally a collection of set prayers.  In pagan Rome the exact words war so important that the priest had an assistant with a prayer book whispering the words to him through the rite (Serith 66).

Another point that Serith makes is that there is nothing wrong with using the prayers of others.  We all have skills, and some people are simply better at writing prayers than others (Serith 66).  Even if you write your own prayers, there is absolutely nothing wrong with repeating them time and time again.  It is rather a good thing to do, because if you wrote the prayer while inspired you will continue to find more within that prayer.  If you were sincere then, there is no reason it makes you less sincere now. However, as Bonewits states “sincerity is not a substitute for competence” (Bonewits 64).

This feeling of continuing to be inspired with a prayer relates to what Serith describes as “deepening.”  This is a phenomenon where the more you memorize and use a prayer, the more it gets ingrained in your unconscious mind.  It begins to “pray you” rather than you “praying it.”  It works its way into you soul and you see more and more with it each time you use it (Serith 67-8).  I’ve found this to especially true in my own practice as I went through the Order of Bardic Alchemy work and wrote, polished, and used my Muses song nearly every ritual.

Another important aspect of set prayers that Serith examines is the because “there are times when we want to pray, but words fail us” (Serith 66).  This is especially applicable in solitary practice.  When you feel the intense need to pray, you often are alone, or feel alone.  In times of mourning this is especially common.  A set prayer is very useful when you are seeking comfort, but don’t know the words to say.  I have found that litanies combined with prayers beads are especially useful for me in this way.

The final argument Serith makes in regard to set prayers is the only that does not apply to solitary prayer: that you can’t pray spontaneously as a group (Serith 67).  On the surface this seems true.  In order for people to speak the same prayer together, they need to know what to say.  However, an area of gray in this that qualifies as more of a sub-point is the call and response prayer.  The person leading the prayer, the call, could be praying spontaneously.  The response given by the congregants would then be repeating this spontaneous prayer.  So whether or not this still counts as a spontaneous prayer I’m not sure, but it is an interesting argument to consider.

 

Works Cited

Bonewits, Philip Emmons Isaac. Neopagan Rites: A Guide to Creating Public Rituals That Work. Woodbury, MN: Llewellyn Publications, 2007. Print.

Serith, Ceisiwr. A Book of Pagan Prayer. Boston, MA: Weiser, 2002. Print.

Divination 1

1.     Name and briefly describe one method of divination or seership technique common to three paleo-pagan Indo-European cultures. (minimum 100 words each)

The Drawing/Casting of Lots:  This method involves a collection of symbols, commonly from a writing system, from which the Seer picks from, and then interprets.

Norse: Runes

The Runes of the Elder Futhark is a writing system for the Germanic people.  Each symbol stands for a letter/sound, as well as additional divinatory meanings.  The runes are associated with wisdom and divination through Odin.  His story of how he learned the runes and gained their wisdom is related in the Havamal.  This discussion is more related to the magical uses for the runes.  Further meanings that apply more to the context of divination as used by man are found in the Rune Poems, whether they are from Norse, Anglo-Saxon, or Icelandic versions.  The traditional way of casting lots with the runes involved not only interpreting the meaning of each symbol, but also where it fell during the casting process (Thorsson).

Celtic: Ogham

The Ogham was a system of writing for the Celtic people in general, though it is found most commonly in Irish.  The alphabet dates from the 4th century CE, and most inscriptions are from the 4th-8th century.  Each symbol represents a letter, since the ogham was likely first used as a writing system rather for divination.  The Tree Ogham is the set of oghams that is used for divination.  The fews, or individual symbols, are broken down into five groups of five (called aicme (aicmi= plural), some of which are not commonly used in divination since they appear to have been meant solely for use in manuscripts (Ellison 1-12).

Greek: Olympian Alphabet Oracle

The Greek Alphabet Oracle comes from the Ancient Greek system of writing.  Unlike other symbol sets, where a collection of key words may accompany each symbol, the Greek Alphabet Oracle has a phrase that matches to each symbol.  The phrase starts with a word that begins with the corresponding letter.  So, when interpreting from the Greek Alphabet Oracle, not only does the Seer work with keywords and intuition, but also with an oracular phrase that references some aspect of life or the Gods within Ancient Hellenismos.  Traditionally the letter was chosen either by rolling five astrogaloi (goat knucklebones) and calculating the corresponding letter based on the associated numbers or by shaking pottery fragments that had been inscribed with the letters from a bowl or frame drum (Sophistes).

 

2.     Within the context of a single paleo-pagan Indo-European culture, discuss three different forms of divination or seership, and give an example of each. (minimum 100 words each)

Within the context of Ancient Greece, divination can be divided into roughly two categories: natural and artificial.  Both types were considered to be a communication between mortals and gods, but artificial divination is something that could be taught, whereas natural divination is something that is untaught and considered more reliable because it is a direct communication from the gods, rather than going through the channels of interpretation by mortals.  Another division that may make more sense and be less convoluted is to say that the two types of divination can instead be divided into institutional oracles and independent diviners (manteis) (Johnston 7-29).

Perhaps the most famous method of Greek divination is the Oracle, specifically the Oracle of Delphi.  This is both an institutional oracle and on that is noted for its natural method.  This specific natural method is called enthused prophecy.  The idea here is that a god, in this case, Apollo, god of truth and prophecy, possessed an oracle, called the Pythia at Delphi, and spoke through her with his voice.  The “breath” of the God filled the Pythia, and she spoke as Him.  One important thing to note is that the oracles were tied to their location, rather than to a specific person.  Thus we have the Oracle of Delphi, the Oracle of Dodona, etc.  A Pythia, serving at the Oracle of Delphi, is a woman born in good standing and who has been influenced as little as possible by the thoughts of man so that she may speak clearly Apollo’s words without overtones of human thoughts (Johnston 33-50).

Dice oracles were also popular.  These were a kind of “self-service” oracle.  The person seeking a divinatory reading would go to a statue or pillar where there were numbered phrases inscribed on the side.  They would take up five of the astrogaloi (four sided dice made from a sheep’s knucklebone) that lay on a table in front of the statue and roll them, adding up the resulting numbers.  They would them find the numbered phrase on the statue, which was the advice or answer to their question.  In Anatolia the oracular phrases were inscribed on a statue of Hermes.  Each phrase was “sponsored” by a particular deity.  The seeker would have to determine for themselves how the phrase and deity represented by their number applied to their question.  It is likely that there were manteis, or freelance, diviners present offering their services of interpretation to the seeker (Johnston 98-100).

Another type of divination that was common in ancient Greece, as well as many other cultures, was the reading of entrails.  One reason this was so common was because those animals that were most often sacrificed to the gods (sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs) always shad their entrails read as part of the sacrificial procedure.  This was done often simply for the sake of making sure that the offering was acceptable to the gods.  The reading of entrails is thought to be rather straightforward.  The diviner would look at the innards of a creature, most notably the liver, and receive a yes or no answer to whatever question had been asked.  There is debate on the subject, but it is generally agreed on that this process can only be done three times each day for the same question.  This was more a sense of omen taking than other methods were. The belief was that certain signs would always precede creation events.  The manteis was trained to know what those signs were and what they were known to precede (Johnston 125-128).

 

3.     Discuss both the role of seers within at least one Indo-European culture and the relationship of seers to other members of the society, including in that discussion how seers or visionaries would have supported themselves or how they would have been supported by their people.(minimum two paragraphs)

The Institutional Oracles were an important part of the economic ecosystem of the cities they existed around.  Generally speaking, they did not provide for themselves in the way of sustenance, but rather relied on the folk they served to bring that to them.  In the Homeric Hymn to the Pythian Apollo there is story asking how the people chosen by Apollo to care for his temple shall be provided for.  They were reminded that “the glorious tribes of men will bring gifts to you as Iepaeon (`Hail-Healer’), and you will receive with delight rich sacrifices from the people dwelling round about” (Evelyn-White).  This meant that when the people brought forth sacrifices to the altar of Apollo at his temple, the priests there would be well fed as long as the fame of the oracle lasted. In this same sense, it was also beneficial for the surrounding towns to enhance their Oracle’s reputation.  The more people traveled through, and stayed for extended period of time, the better business was for that town.  This was especially true of the Oracle of Delphi, which later became the site for the Pythian Games (Johnston 34-46).

For the independent diviners (manteis), they made their living much the same way other merchants did: by selling their wares and services to the public.  They were well-respected as part of the aristocratic class of men (and sometimes women) who would seek to further themselves and their reputation not only through their divination, but also through feats of strength and courage.  The manteis was a crisis manager; he was an integral part of the Hellenic society.  When something went wrong, the manteis would not only look to the future, but would also look to the past.  It was their job to determine how the folk might have offended the gods at some point in the past so that the correct amends could be made to set the course of history back on a good path.  The manteis also had a very important role in the military history of Greece.  In myth, every army had its own manteis, because of how important it was to consult the will of the gods when approaching something that their good or ill will may determine the outcome of the battle.  The manteis would bring out sacrificial animals before a battle.  They would kill these animals and read their entrails, determining how the battle would go and what would need to be done in order to win the battle.  Generals were known to put great weight in these divinations, and would even delay battle until the omens were fortuitous.  The independent diviner had more freedom than the institutional oracles to peruse the life they wanted.  They were less tied to the people in the sense of dependency, but also had to prove themselves much more than the institutional oracles to maintain their reputation and thus be able to sell their services (Johnston 116-118).

 

 

4.     Identify and describe one method of divination to which you find yourself attracted, and discuss its relationship to paleo-pagan divination.(minimum 300 words.)

I am attracted to divination by lots.  This method is common across many cultures, and I find the juxtaposition of the simplicity of drawing a symbol against the complexity of interpreting that symbol within the context of the question and all the sublets that it may represent to be very effective and rewarding.  Since I am drawn almost exclusively to the Hellenic deities, I am specifically attracted to the Greek Alphabet Oracle, also known as the Olympian Oracle.  Within this symbol set are the 24 letters of the ancient Greek alphabet.  There is very little source material regarding this symbol set specifically (discussed in further detail in the following question), and what there is, is difficult to find translated into English or find at all.  In general, it is a method of divination that involves choosing a number of symbols seemingly at random and interpreting their meanings in relation to the individual symbol, in relation to each other and the placement of each symbol drawn, and in relation to the question asked.

The Greeks have many documented methods of divination, but I’ve found that the Greek Alphabet Oracle fits well within methods used across many paleo-pagan cultures.  The important part of this for me is that it means it fits well within ADF cult practice.  Drawing or casting lots is the most common method of divination I’ve seen in ADF public ritual, making the method of taking an omen in ritual familiar both to me and to the Folk (who are used to seeing Runes or Oghams drawn from a bag as a method of taking an omen).  This is why I’ve chosen to use the Greek Alphabet Oracle in my divinatory practice, even though it lacks in the way of obtainable source material.  It is familiar in application to other methods of divination commonly used.  On a practical level, it is also easily transportable, and can be consulted rather easily in a variety of situations and locations.

 

5.     Briefly describe the symbology of your chosen method of divination, and include a method of application for that system. (minimum 100 words overall description plus at least one sentence or line per symbol)

The system of divination that I used most often is the Greek Alphabet Oracle.  There are three traditional ways of using this system.  The first way is through the drawing of lots.  Traditionally this would have been done with pottery fragments, each inscribed with a letter.  This is the method that I use, drawing inscribed wooden disks from an opaque bag.  I found that pottery fragments were both too brittle, since I had no way to fire them, and the shapes weren’t uniform enough, removing some measure of objectivity.  The second method is through the casting of five knucklebones, or astrogaloi.  There are four “sides” of a knucklebone, and each is given a value (1, 3, 4, and 6).  When those values are added together they correspond to a letter.  There are 24 possible different sums, between 5 and 30, with 6 and 29 being impossible.  The third method is similar, except that it uses five six-sided die, rather than bone.  The possible values are again between 5 and 30, with both 13 and 25 being uninterpretable from a reconstruction standpoint.  Generally, the die will be recast, though some may choose to interpret 13 as having to do with sacrificed and resurrected Gods (i.e.: Dionysos) and 25 as having to do with perfection (being the square of 5) (Sophistes).

Each letter in the alphabet oracle correlates to a phrase containing a key word that starts with that letter.  Below I’ve written the phrase that goes with the letter in italics, as well as the phrase I wrote to add some of my own insight while maintaining the structure that these omens where taken in. I had the phrases that I wrote begin with the same letter, or at least sound, so that as I was learning them it would be easier for me to remember.

Alpha: “The God [Apollo] says you will do everything {Hapanta} successfully.” 

All you do is successful.

Beta: “With the help of Tychê [Fortune], you will have an assistant {Boêthos}, the Pythian [Apollo].” 

Because you asked for help

Gamma: “Gaia [the Earth] {Gê} will give you the ripe fruit of your labors.” 

Gaia gave what you need.  Harvest it.

Delta: “In customs inopportune strength {Dunamis} is weak.” 

Deciding how to act and when strength is necessary

Epsilon: “You desire {Eraô} to see the offspring of righteous marriages.” 

Eager to see the results of union

Zeta: “Flee the very great storm {Zalê}, lest you be disabled in some way.” 

Zeus causes the storm: flee before his anger

Eta: “Bright Helios [Sun] {Hêlios}, who watches everything, watches you.” 

Every word you speak, Helios knows the truth

Theta: “You have the helping Gods {Theoi} of this path.” 

Throughout your journey, you will have the gods help.

Iota: “There is sweat {Hidrôs}; it excels more than everything.” 

If you lose all else, your hard work remains

Kappa: “To fight with the waves {Kuma} is difficult; endure, friend.”

Keep on enduring the inevitable with courage.

Lambda: “The one passing on the left {Laios} bodes well for everything.” 

Learn that blessings come from the most unsuspecting places

Mu: “It is necessary to labor {Mokhtheô}, but the change will be admirable.” 

Much good will come through labor and toil.

Nu: “The strife-bearing {Neikêphoros} gift fulfills the oracle.” 

Notice when strife has come, for it is a sign.

Xi: “There is no fruit to take from a withered {Xêros} shoot.” 

Expectations should be rational

Omicron: “There are no {Ou} crops to be reaped that were not sown.” 

Only what you plant will yield a harvest

Pi: “Completing many {Polus} contests, you will seize the crown.” 

Perseverance through adversity will win many battles.

Rho: “You will go on more easily {Rhaion} if you wait a short time.” 

Remain a short while and you will proceed more easily.

Sigma: “Phoibos [Apollo] speaks plainly {Saphôs}, ‘Stay, friend.’” 

Stay and hold your ground

Tau: “You will have a parting from the {Tôn} companions now around you.” 

Travelers must eventually part ways.

Upsilon: “The affair holds a noble undertaking {Huposkhesis}.” 

Understand whether you should seek a noble quest, or whether your quest is being hindered.

Phi: “Having done something carelessly {Phaulos}, you will thereafter blame the Gods.”

Fate is yours alone – take responsibility for it and do not blame the Gods.

Khi: “Succeeding, friend, you will fulfill a golden {Khruseos} oracle.” 

Completion of your goals is excellent

Psi: “You have this righteous judgment {Psêphos} from the Gods.” 

Suitable judgment has been passed down by the Gods.

Omega: “You will have a difficult {Ômos} harvest season, not a useful one.” 

Onerous times await you.

 

6.     Describe the results of three divinations performed by you. These divinations may be text assisted. (minimum 100 words each)

Omen for Querant as she worries about her health (3/28/12)

Kappa — Theta — Beta

Things are going to be rough ahead, but you are loved, so stay strong.  The gods are with you.  Apollo the Healer is with you.  Good Fortune (Tyche) is on your side.  As the waves crash over you, you may find it harder and harder to endure all the tis being thrown at you.  Remember to float.  Work on just being.  The Gods are watching over you, and they are here to help you.  The path ahead has many obstacles, but allow them to guide your steps.  And remember that you specifically have the assistance of Apollo and Tyche.  They will help you get through the struggles ahead, but in return you must ask for help when you need it.  They can open the doors for help to be given, but you must walk through those doors and ask for what you need.

Comfest: Querant (6/23/12)

Past: Phi — Present: Omega — Future: Zeta — Overarching Connection: Nu — Further Clarification: Theta & Xi

In the past she had made some actions or mistakes that she was perhaps too hard on herself for or didn’t accept that that’s how fate or the situation should or was meant to go.  Presently she’s in a holding pattern, sending out all these feelers and none of them are taking hold.  Her advice to get out of the pattern is to stop pouring her energy into that which isn’t serving her, and stop per suing those things that are only draining on her.  The overarching connection is the strife-bearing gift.  What is the silver lining she can take from Phi, Omega, and Zeta?  She can learn not to be careless with others emotions, to continue trying to find a way out, and to recognize what is helpful to her.  For further clarification she was reminded that though she’s struggling on this path, the Gods have her back.  She also needs to be sure that she properly cares for and tends the seedlings she plants.  Either be all in, or don’t water your energy bothering at all.

Comfest: Querant (6/23/12)

Past: Nu — Present: Omega — Future: Theta

Maybe something bad happened a little while ago, but now you’re trying to fix, but aren’t really getting anywhere.  So, to work on fixing it you need to remember all the people around you and the divinities have got your back. You just need to remember that you can ask them for help.  You’re not in this alone, even though it may feel like it sometimes.  Learn from the mistakes of your past.  Every bad experience has a lesson within it.  Try to find that lesson and apply it to what you’re struggling with now.  You’ll find that your relationship with the divinities will deepen as you work through this current struggle and apply the lessons they gave you to learn.

 

7.     Discuss your view of the purpose of divination. (minimum 100 words)

Sarah Iles Johnston states that the purpose of ancient divination is “to gain knowledge of what humans would not otherwise know” (Johnston 3).  This general statement is true in all regards, but I think in terms of divination for religious purposes, if a general goal can be set that we’d like to live our lives to the fullest in the best way we can, then divination can guide us.  I believe that in our lives and in this world we’re each set on a path.  Our general course has been set by the fates.  Our threads spun out, woven, measured, and will eventually be cut.  The specifics are left up to us to determine how we spend our thread, how we burn our wick. Divination can help us see more clearly the path laid out before us so that we can make more informed and conscious decisions about the direction we’re heading.  It can also offer reassurance for choices made, or guidance to view a situation from another perspective.  In general, I see an omen taken as the way things will pan out if no changes are made in the course you are taking.  So, but seeing the path ahead you are more able to make an informed choice as to whether or not you should hold your course, or set your sails to divert a different direction.  As with all things, divination is no substitute for the thoughts and work and actions we put into our lives.  It cannot make the changes, but can help to clear the clouds so we can see a bit further and with a bit more wisdom.

 

8.     Discuss the relative importance and effect of divination within your personal spiritual practice. (minimum 100 words)

Within my spiritual practice there are a few ways that I approach and use divination.  On a personal level I will take an omen for guidance on the coming days.  I rarely look further ahead than a month, simply there are so many choices and branching of paths in that amount of time that an omen and the wisdom it provides could really go any which way.  I find it useful in this way to brace myself in a sense.  The other piece of this is that oftentimes taking an omen for myself will force me to see a situation in a different light, from a different perspective, allowing me to change my course if I need to.

I also use divination in ritual space, especially when working with a new or unfamiliar deity, to see if the offerings I’m making have been accepted.  I find this especially useful when I’m unsure of what kinds of things the deity would like to receive as offerings.  Following up on that, the other way I use divination is to see what blessings or wisdom are offered to me in return for the offerings I make.  I’ve found that I more often receive wisdom and guidance than I do specific blessings, but perhaps that is the nature of the Greek Oracle.

 

9.     Discuss your view and understanding of the function of the Seer. (minimum 100 words)

The role of the Seer is to serve as an intermediary between the Folk and the Kindreds.  The Folk can be anything from a solitary, to a Grove, to a larger community.  The Kindreds can be from any of the Ancestors, Nature Spirits, or Shining Ones depending on whom the Seer is addressing.  The Seer can serve as one in a ritual setting with a larger purpose, or in a more intimate setting with the main goal being to seek guidance from the Kindreds.  In the case of a ritual, the Seer takes the Omen, serving as the voice of the Kindreds.  In a more intimate setting, the Seer is directed more by the querant and the questions they ask.

 

10.     Discuss the importance and value of divination as it relates to ADF. (minimum 100 words)

The Seer directs the divination within an ADF ritual.  The Seer’s job here is three-fold: to find out whether or not the Sacrifices of the Folk have been accepted, to interpret the blessings and wisdom that is received in return, and to help the Folk determine how to apply those blessings and wisdom to their lives.  I think this is important because finding out if our gifts are well received helps to deepen our relationship with the Kindreds.  In addition, once we have learned what we’re being offered in return, it is sometimes overlooked how to apply those blessings and wisdom to our lives.  I’ve found that the Socratic method works well for this part because though you can give someone wisdom, if you cannot help them apply it to their own life, it does them little good.  By asking questions that help them focus on the blessing and think on multiple meanings of it, you can help them find the ways it applies to them.

 

Bibliography

Sophistes, Apollonius. “A Greek Alphabet Oracle.” A Greek Alphabet Oracle. Biblioteca Arcana, 2005. Web. 23 July 2012. <http://web.eecs.utk.edu/~mclennan/BA/LAO.html>.

Ellison, Robert Lee. Ogham: The Secret Language of the Druids. Tucson, AZ: ADF, 2007. Print.

Evelyn-White, H. G. “The Homeric Hymns 1-3.” Classical E-Text. Theoi.com, 2011. Web. 06 Aug. 2012. <http://www.theoi.com/Text/HomericHymns1.html>.

Johnston, Sarah Iles. Ancient Greek Divination. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell Pub., 2008. Print.

Thorsson, Edred. Runecaster’s Handbook: The Well of Wyrd. York Beach, ME: Samuel Weiser, 1999. Print.

 

Anniversary of Marriage Ritual

Thom and I are doing a ritual for our anniversary.  Kind of vow renewal/ reaffirmation type thing.  I wrote it so it can be done year after year.  It draws heavily from our original wedding liturgy that I wrote with some help from MJD.  We still have our familial flames and our unity candle (they live on my Ancestors altar) as well as our hand fasting ribbons.  After doing this brief reaffirmation, Thom and I both felt just as drawn together as we did the day of our wedding.  Following is the text:

 

I call out now to Hera, Queen of the Gods,

and to Aphrodite, Goddess of Passion and Love!

 

Hera,

Heavenly Queen, stately, poised, and graceful.

Queen to and Men, Partner to the Thundering Zeus.

Bestower of cool breezes, gentle rains, and clear skies.

You whose presence honors any wedding day,

Whose favor blesses any union,

I sing your praises, and bid you join us here.

Hera, you help to form the bonds of kith and kin.

Joiner of hearts, protector of marriage,

Benefactress of weddings and marital harmony.

Flexible as the Willow, Fierce as the Lion,

Love as bright as the peacock’s feather.

I sing your praises and bid you join us here.

 

Aphrodite,

Foam born, sweet and gentle,

Shaper of passions as you guide us to the bridal bed,

Spinning hearts together like the finest silk.

You who watch with honest love, O Great Goddess,

As we pledge ourselves to one another.

I sing your praises and bid you join us here.

Aphrodite, you turn the hearts of men and women towards love,

Kindle in us the deepest desire.

Laughter-loving goddess, enflaming our union,

With you our breath quickens, our hearts pound.

Brightest gold shines with your kiss on our lips.

Bountiful and Beautiful,

I sing your praises and bid you join us here.

 

We come back together now, just as we did in 2011, to rededicate ourselves to each other.  Where before we chose our own path based on our own feelings and desires, we made a conscious choice to decide now as one where our life and our path shall lead, and today, as we made that decision ___ years ago, we again choose to continue together down the same path.

 

Jan and Thom each light their familial fire.  They each speak together:

I vow to you, my love and partner, to be honest and understanding, compassionate and loving, supportive and helpful, even as I ask these things of you.  May this fire burn brightly in you as it does in me.

 

Jan and Thom light their unity flame, speaking together:

As the flames of our family merge, so are our heart once again bound as one.  We come together again after another year.  We are Jan and Thom Avende.  The roots of our love are deep and strong, the branches of our love are lush and ever blossoming, and our trunk stands steady to support us through the good and bad.

 

Now we seek to remember the gifts bestowed on us on our wedding day to help nourish our relationship, and deepen our love:

 

Jan and Thom alternate speaking:

  • I speak of the rain on the earth and the sun in the heavens; the fertility of the world brings us both new growth.
  • I speak of the guest arriving at the door, and the host who invites him in; the bread broken in hospitality sustains us both.
  • I speak of the calm in the storm and the silence of the night; in moderation will we find each other’s heart.
  • I speak of the strength of one that is now the other’s, and the drive to rise above; together, our perseverance draws us to new heights.
  • I speak of the fear we overcome in each other’s arms, and of the joy that rings in our embrace; let the song that arises in our heart sing of our courage.
  • I speak of the vows we have spoken in presence of family and friends; maintain the integrity of our word and find the world strengthened in our love.
  • I speak of the order we find in one another, and the actions that maintain it; with wisdom, we will know and do what is right by the other.
  • I speak of the far sight, shared now between the two of us forever; may we each see the same bright vision reflected in the other’s eyes.

 

Jan and Thom speak together:

We speak of the fire that never hungers, the well that ever shimmers, and the *ghosti that binds all relationships; feed each other’s spirit, honor the Gods, and live long in piety.

 

By the waters that support and surround us, by the sky that stretches out above us, and by the land that extends out about us does this union continue. May the fire that burns at the center of all things burn as one within our hearts for all our days.

Indo-European Mythology 1

  1. List and discuss the major primary sources for the mythology of three Indo-European cultures, including their dates of origin and authorship (if known). Discuss any important factors that may cause problems in interpreting these sources, such as the existence of multiple revisions, or the presence of Christian or other outside influences in surviving texts. (minimum 300 words)

Norse:

The major primary sources for Norse mythology come from the Prose Edda, written by Snorri Sturluson, and the Poetic Edda. These were written after the rise of Christianity, in the 13th century CE, and as such one should consider what influence Christianity had on these myths. The myths were written down based on oral tradition, and by authors whose cultures had already been exposed to Christian influences. Other sources regarding the Norse and Germanic peoples come from invading cultures, like the Romans. This means that when examining these sources the reader should take everything with a grain of salt.

 Greek:

The major primary sources in Greek mythology are those written by Hesiod and Homer, around the 8th Century BCE. This includes Hesiod’s Theogony and Works and Days, Homer’s The Odyssey and The Iliad, as well as the Homeric Hymns, written by those who followed in Homer’s tradition. The work of Homer, while influential and an excellent resource for Greek myth, should be carefully chosen when used for interpretation of ancient religion because there are so many translations. There is also the issue that the majority of the Greek lore started out as an oral tradition, and thus, changes likely occurred before Homer began writing it down (“Homer”).

Vedic:

The primary sources for Vedic lore are all contained in the Samhitas, which was written during the early Vedic period, somewhere between the 17th and 11th centuries BCE. The Samhitas is a collection of the four Vedas: the Rig-Veda (for recitation), the Sama-Veda (for chanting), the Yajur-Veda (for liturgy), and the Atharva-Veda (which was named after a type of priest). The Rig-Veda is the largest and most important of these. Unfortunately since no physical remnants remain of the Vedic time period, reading from the Rig-Veda and trying to reconstruct the religion of the time is a lot of guesswork done in the context of a Christian society. It is simply a collection of hymns, though most of the hymns are to Indra, Agni, and Soma (Puhvel 46). One of the problems in understanding this work is that the connotation of some words has shifted in translations. For example, in the word mitra, the meaning shifted from “contractor” to “friend” (Puhvel 48). There is also the current problem of the knowledge that Hinduism has grown out of Vedic lore, and thus current culture and current influences may have an effect on the reconstructed worship of this ancient religion.

 

  1. Summarize, then compare and contrast the myths of at least two Indo-European cultures with respect to the following topics (you need not use the same two cultures as a basis of comparison for each topic): (minimum 300 words for each)

tales of creation

Both Norse and Greek mythology describe a tale of creation that begins with a sort of nothingness, a void, that is then suddenly expanded and organized to create the world. In both myths, after the world is created, the various things that make up the world and the beings that live there are added. The Greek tale of creation is told in Hesiod’s Theogony. In the beginning there was nothingness, a void of Chaos. From Chaos came Gaea (the earth), Tartarus, and Eros. This titanic form of Eros (procreation) caused Gaea to create Ouranos (the sky), Ourea (the mountains) and Pontos (the sea), and Chaos to also create Nyx (night), Erebus (darkness) and Kronos (time). From these beings the rest of the world continued to form, from the oceans, to the sun and moon, day and the air, the beings that dwelt on the earth, and then the Titans. The Greeks continued to talk about how the Olympians came to be from the Titans, and the betrayal that led to the Olympians becoming the principle gods of the land (Hesiod Theogony).

The Norse myths describe the creation of the world as it came into being guided by three brothers: Odin, Vili, and Ve. In the North was icy Nilfhiem, and in the south was fiery Muspell. In the middle was Ginnungagap, a mild place where Ymir, a frost giant, lived and sweated out the race of frost giants. This is similar to how in Greek lore there was a place of Chaos, and then from that void came Gaea, where things could begin to live and thrive.

The Norse myth goes one to explain how Ymir was killed by the three brothers, Odin, Vili, and Ve as they grew tired of his and the other frost giants evilness. This is much more violent that what happens in the Greek myth, where Eros served as a catalyst for the creation of the rest of the things. The Norse world was made out of Ymir’s body. His flesh became the earth, his bones the mountains, his blood the lakes and seas, and his skull the sky, held up by four dwarves. The brothers took the embers from fiery Muspell and threw them up into the sky making the sun, and moon, and stars. This follows a similar pattern to Greek myth when Gaea created the sky, mountains, and sea and how then other parts of the world were formed from there.

The Norse brothers Odin, Vili, and Ve then divided the world so there would be a place for the giants, Jotunheim, and a safer place made of Ymir’s eyebrows, Midgard. This division of the world in Greek myth happens earlier in the creation of the world. Gaea (who holds both the realm of man and Mt. Olympus, the realm of the gods) and Tartarus both come from the void of Chaos. The Norse brothers then made man and woman from an ash and elm tree and put them in Midgard. In Greek myth the addition of man comes much later, and the gods must experiment with different types of mortals until they finally create the race of man as we know it. In Norse myth the Sun and Moon were children of a man, Mundilfari, and were put in the sky guiding the chariots of the sun and the moon while chased by wolves. The dwarves were made from the maggots that had crawled over Ymir’s body. This differs from the Greek myth where the Sun and the Moon were Titans, from the line of Gaea.

The creation story in Nordic lore explains next how Odin, Vili, and Ve built their own realm above Midgard, and called it Asgard, and they were linked together by Bifrost, the rainbow bridge. The Aesir all crossed the bridge to dwell in Asgard. All the regions of the world are under the branches of Yggdrasil, the great ash tree (Crossley-Holland 3). In Greek myth, the realm of the Gods is not as firmly separated from the realm of man. The closest place is Mt. Olympus, which exists on Gaea, just as the realm of man does.

tales of divine war

Divine war, as described in the lore of various Indo-European cultures, is often the tale of a new set of gods replacing an older set of gods. Often the older gods have more primal qualities, and the newer gods introduce levels of wisdom and reason. This can be seen in the Greek myths where the Titans have many more of the primal qualities, having been the creating forces of the world, and the Olympians begin to introduce new concepts, like justice and order, into the world. This is similar to what can be seen in the Norse divine war between the Aesir and the Vanir. The Vanir, being fertility and wilds gods have more primal qualities, whereas the Aesir are more logical, creating order in the world. In the treaty that exists in the Norse myth this is even more pronounced, as the Aesir give Honir and Mimir (thought and memory) to the Vanir, even as the Vanir teach some of their more primal and magical skills to the Aesir via Njord, Freyja and Freyr.

The divine war that is most recognizable in Greek mythology is the war between the Titans and the Olympians. The story is told in Hesiod’s Theogony. The Titans were the gods that came first, out of Gaea and Ouranos. During this war, the sides were not as clear as initially implied, since some Titans sided with the Olympians and other Gods who fell into neither category also were involved. The overthrow of the Titans takes place when Rhea, mother of the Elder Olympians, saved Zeus from being eaten by his father, Kronos. This was the beginning of the division. Zeus and the Olympians were constantly at odds with his father, Kronos, and the Titans, and war broke out that lasted ten years, with neither side being able to win.

Zeus appealed to the other Elder gods, specifically Obriareus, Cottus, and Gyes, who had been cast down by Kronos, to aid him in the fight. They recognized that if the war continued, only strife could come out of it, and so, having been rescued by Zeus after having been betrayed by Kronos, they decided to join the ranks of the Olympians and other deathless gods to fight Kronos and the Titans. At this point Zeus no longer held back his power of thunder and lightning, and seemed likely to destroy the world itself in his wrath. With the new aid of Cottus, Obriareus, and Gyes they were able to bury Kronos and the Titans in rocks down in Tartarus. There they are guarded by those three, bound in chains, and sealed off from the rest of the worlds by a great golden fence made by Poseidon (Hesiod Theogony).

The divine war in Norse mythology is between the Aesir and the Vanir, and the tale is recounted in the Völuspá of the Poetic Edda. It seems as though they are fighting to determine who should receive the honor, worship, and sacrifices of man. Odin leads the Aesir after he has tried to kill Gullveig three times over with his flaming spear, and the Vanir retaliate. It looks like neither side can win, similarly to what happened in the war between the Olympians and Titans, and so they exchange hostages. Honir and Mimir for Njord and his children: Freyja and Freyr (Bellows). In both myths members from each group of gods needed to be switched sides in some way so that one side could come out victorious. In this sense it is interesting to note what values carried forward as the new gods came into power. 

tales which describe the fate of the dead

The Norse and the Greeks both have stories that delineate where the dead go after life. The Greeks have a very complex view of the afterlife, with proper burial of the dead being very important in getting the psyche to its final place, and the Underworld is a huge place with many different ends for people within it. Generally speaking though, those who were heroes in their lifetime, or who did good deeds, were sent to the Elysian Fields (Homer Odyssey), while those who committed crimes were punished in Tartarus, which is also where the Titans who fought against Zeus ended up (Hesiod Theogony).

The Norse view of the afterlife is similar in that those who are heroes in life, who die valiantly in battle, are picked up by the Valkyries and taken either to Freyja or to Valhalla. Valhalla is a wonderful place where the warriors can fight all day and feast all night. When Ragnarok comes, these warriors will fight with Odin in the last battle. Others who die a less eventful death are sent to Hel, the Goddess and the place, which is very cold. Hel appears to also be where Gods who die are sent, as in the case of Baldr.

In both Norse and Greek myths access to the Underworld is said to lie somewhere to the north. In Greek myth, it is “somewhere in the northern mists, on a shore at the ends of Ocean, among the Cimmerians on whom the sun never shines” (Puhvel 138). In Norse myth when Hermodr is sent to bring Baldr back from the dead, he must ride Sleipner “downward and northward” until he gets to the gates of Hel (Puhvel 214). It is interesting how this general view of the Underworld has shifted from being presumably north, to being to the south, which is what we typically think of now as “down” since the invention of maps. I think it is likely that since in both cultures the further north they would travel, the colder and less civilized things would get. To the north were likely places that either had no life, or where life was so alien to what they were used to that they found it difficult to recognize.

  1. Explain how each of the following elements of ADF ritual does or does not resonate with elements of two different Indo-European cultures (you need not use the same two cultures as a basis of comparison for each element): (minimum 100 words each)

Earth Mother

In ADF Ritual the Earth Mother is honored both first and last.  In Greek mythology Gaea is the Earth Mother.  She is honored as the supporting force of the world, and a Titan Goddess.  The Earth was still honored in Ancient Greece; however, for the purposes of a deity that is honored both first and last in Greek cosmology, that place goes to Hestia.  She is the Goddess of the hearth and home and is honored both first and last in ritual for all that she provides for us, and as both the first- and last-born of Kronos (Hesiod). So, worshiping within the Greek hearth culture in ADF, honoring the Earth mother fits, though not as the first and last honored in ritual.

This differs from the presence of an Earth Mother type deity in Norse mythology. In the Prose Edda, in the Gylfaginning, there is an explanation of how the earth was created and divided up, but the earth is not personified in the same way that it is in other cultures (Sturluson). In this case, the earth seems to get convoluted with the spirits of the land. So honoring the Earth Mother in a Norse context as a deity figure in ADF ritual does not resonate well, though respecting and thanking the earth for the bounty it provides does. 

Deities of Land

The Deities of the Land are those Gods and Goddesses who dwell on the earth with man. In Greek mythology this get convoluted because the Twelve Olympians are designated because they dwell in the sky on Mt. Olympus, but they are clearly not all Sky Deities, and each have their own role that they fill. Generally I consider the Land Deities to fall into two categories: the domestic (including the hearth) and the wild. So, in Greek mythology some Land Deities in the domestic sense may be Hestia, Demeter, and Dionysos, whereas some of the wild Land Deities may be Pan, Gaea, and Artemis (Atsma).

In Norse mythology the Deities of the Land are generally the Vanir. Some of the deities in the wild places are Skaði, Goddess of winter and the hunt, as well as fertility deities such as Freyr and Freyja. A more domestic land deity could be Gefjun, an agricultural goddess that helped with plowing the land to make the earth in the beginning, and Idunna , guarding the orchard of golden apples (Sturluson).

In ADF ritual we don’t generally worship the deities by division of location, though that is not to say that they aren’t honored, just that they are more often grouped collectively as the “Shining Ones.” However, when doing invocations to the Shining Ones it is not unusual to see them divided up in some way and called upon based on the archetype they represent, such as “Those Shining Deities who dwell in the realm of Man.” So in both Greek and Norse mythology is makes sense to honor the Deities of the Land.

Deities of Sea

The Deities of the Sea are those Gods and Goddesses who have dominion over the waters of the earth. I would consider this to be both the freshwater sources and the saltwater sources. We don’t do much with the sea deities in ADF, and when we do they generally get clumped in with the deities of the land as those who dwell in the realm of man.

In Greek mythology the older, Titan God who has dominion over the waters is Okeanos (Hesiod Theogony). Okeanos is the firstborn of the Titans and is the great freshwater river that encircles the earth and is often paired with Tethys, as the mother of all rivers.    It is interesting that the English word for Ocean comes from Okeanos, but when we refer to oceans we are referring to bodies of saltwater and Okeanos is associated with freshwater. In Greek mythology the God that is in charge of what we would consider the sea is Poseidon. He has dominion over the saltwater ocean, and he is the one that the people would pray to in order to gain his blessing in sailing out to sea (Hesiod Theogony).

In Irish mythology the Deity of the Sea that is most recognizable is Manannan mac Lir, the son of the sea. Similar to Greek mythology, the saltwater sea is associated with horses, and the waves are often described as having the look of horses. Manannan is often called to work with the Folk as a Gatekeeper because he can “travel beyond the ninth wave.” The freshwater deity within Irish mythology is Danu, the flowing one. She is associated with the sacredness of pure water sources, such as rivers like the Danube (Rees).

It makes sense to honor the deities of the sea within the Greek or Irish hearth culture, but as we don’t generally worship the deities by division of location in ADF, or the deities of the sea specifically, I would say it currently doesn’t resonate. I think if people did begin to honor the deities of the sea more, that it would definitely resonate, but in current practice it simply isn’t done that often. By expanding our understanding of the Deities of the Sea to include both freshwater and saltwater entities it becomes easier to identify with them, and honor them in ritual. I think the reason we don’t often honor the Sea Gods in ADF may be because many of our members are in land-locked areas, or even if they do live near a water source, their livelihood or life is not intrinsically linked to the sea like it was for the ancients. I think this is something that members can and should begin addressing as nature awareness. Just as they explore how they interact with the land around them, exploring how they connect with the waters of the earth is equally important. If that were the case, I think worshiping the Deities of the Sea would resonate more within ADF ritual. 

Deities of Sky

The Deities of the Sky are those Gods and Goddesses who have dominion over the things in the heavens, above the realm of man. In Greek mythology some of these deities are Titans, some major gods, and some minor gods. The Titans, Helios and Selene are the Sun and the Moon, respectively. Zeus is the Olympian taking the role of the thundering/ weather deity, while some of the minor sky deities are Boreus, Iris, and the Aurai.

In Norse mythology, just as not all Olympians are Sky Deities, not all of the Aesir are either. Sunna is the light of the sun. Thor is the Thundering God, though unlike many of the other Indo-European mythologies, he is not the patriarch of the pantheon, but rather the son of the patriarch, Odin.

As before with the Deities of Land and Sea, in ADF we typically don’t specifically worship the deities based on their location, so in that sense this does not resonate with ADF ritual; however, they are often honored as deities of the occasion. The Sky Deities who are associated with the sun are often honored at Winter and/or Summer Solstice as a deity of the occasion.

 Outsiders

The Outsiders in ADF liturgy are those beings or things that are cross with the purposes of the ritual. In Greek mythology the role of the outsiders could be given to the Titans, though they are not typically shunned in Greek myth, but were rather just the older generation of gods. Popular culture likes to paint them as the ‘evil’ that came before the Gods, but in most cases this is highly inaccurate. Ancient Greek culture puts much more emphasis on coming into ritual clean, both physically and spiritually (Hesiod Works and Days). Thus, the portion of the ritual designated to treaty with the Outsiders would fit best with the purification of entering ritual space and ‘casting off’ those things that aren’t needed, or would be at cross-purposes with the ritual within yourself, and in that way it does still resonate with ADF ritual.

In Norse mythology the giants are most often given the role of Outsiders. The frost giants are those beings with whom Thor was always fighting. In the lore they are even separated from the rest of Midgard by mountains, and there is a wall around Asgard in part due to them (Sturluson). The treaty with the Outsiders in this sense is a more traditional bargain where an offering is given in exchange for the beings leaving the ritual alone, and resonates a bit better with ADF ritual.

 Nature Spirits

In Greek mythology the spirits of the land are generally called nymphai. The nymphs are broken up into categories based on what aspect of the land or natural phenomena they are associated with. For example, the dryads are associated with trees, the okeanids with freshwater and rain clouds, the naiads with the rivers, the anthousai with flowers, and the epimelides with pastures and meadows (Atsma “The Nymphai”).

In Irish mythology the sidhe-folk would be what we could consider to be Nature Spirits. They, like the nymphs, were otherworldly, but didn’t carry nearly as much weight and interacted with humans on a much more regular and intimate level. The sidhe-folk are said to live in mounds or hillocks and show mankind wondrous things. Sometimes these are good, and sometimes the sidhe-folk are acting mischievously and causing trouble (Squire 136).

In both mythologies these beings resonate well with how we approach the Nature Spirits as one of the Kindreds. In ADF ritual I think we offer more generally to the spirits of the land and the nature that surrounds us, not necessarily deifying things as much of the lore suggests was done in some way in the past. We also offer to the more otherworldly creatures though, which fits very well with the lore.

 Ancestors

The Ancestors are those, often heroic or wise, who have come before. In both Greek and Norse mythology the Mighty Dead and Ancient Wise are revered and honored, which resonates very well within ADF ritual. The other aspect of working with the Ancestors to gain knowledge and guidance is also well supported in the lore of both cultures.

The Greeks have several myths that involve going to speak with the dead either to get advice, gain wisdom, or retrieve loved ones, as with Odysseus when he goes to meet Tiresias (Homer The Odyssey) or Orpheus when he tries to bring back Eurydike (Atsma). The heroes, such as Herakles, Perseus, Jason, and Odysseus are also remembered in the stories and myths that were told. In addition, we have evidence that the ancient Greeks participated in Ancestor worship. For example, one of the Greek festivals celebrated was Genesios, a festival to honor the dead (Parke).

The Norse also honored their dead, as is evidenced by the lore in reference to where the Honored Dead would go, namely Valhalla. The heroes, such as Sigurd, were also remembered in the stories and myths like in Greece. Another similarity is going to the dead to gain wisdom. In Baldr’s Drapa, Odin goes to the underworld in order to find out why Baldr is having bad dreams. He raises the dead and forces the corpse, the volva, to talk to him and reveal the reason why (Bellows). There is also evidence of seiðr magic, or communing with the spirits, likely the dead, for knowledge, with Thorbjorg the Volva in the Saga of Erik the Red (Sephton).

 

  1. Discuss how the following seven elements of ADF’s cosmology are (or are not) reflected in the myths of two different Indo-European cultures. For this question, please use the same two cultures as a basis of comparison for the entire question. (minimum 100 words each)

 Upperworld

The Upperworld is the world of the Gods, specifically the Shining Ouranic Gods. In ADF we call to the gods of the Upperworld often for their wisdom and power. In Norse mythology this place is in Asgard. This is where the Aesir, the guardians of man, dwell alongside the Einherjar, slain warriors, in Valhalla, the Vanir in Vanaheim, and light elves in Alfheim. Asgard is connected to the other worlds via Bifrost, the Rainbow Bridge (Crossley-Holland xx-xxv).

In Greek mythology this place is Mt. Olympus. This is where the Olympians and others of the Theoi dwell. While Mt. Olympus is still part of the earth, it is inaccessible to man. The majority of the myths in Greek lore have to do with what the Gods do when they are in the realm of man, or how they interact in the middle realm, before going back to dwell on Mt. Olympus. So, while they live in the sky, on Mt. Olympus, above the middle realm, the place itself is not well defined like it is in Norse myths (Atsma).

Middleworld

The Midworld is the world where Man dwells, sometimes with various mythological beasts, nature spirits and other Gods. In ADF we call to the beings in the Middleworld to join us at our fire and accept our reverence for sharing this world with us. We know we’re not alone here, and seek to walk in as much harmony as possible with all the beings that dwell alongside us in the Middleworld.

In Norse mythology the Middleworld is called Midgard and a vast ocean that contains Jormungand, the world serpent, surrounds it. Jotunheim, the land of the giants, and Utgard, the giants’ citadel in the outerworld also exists in the middle of the Norse tricentric view of the worlds. Man also shares Midgard with the Dwarves and the Dark Elves (Crossley-Holland xx-xxv).

The Greek middle world is not as well defined as it is in other cultures. The whole world is described as the earth, which is completely encircled by Okeanos, the deep-running river. There is a great sky dome (Ouranos) that stretches over top of the earth, from river’s edge to river’s edge. Even the sun, moon, and stars were said to rise and set in his waters. Below the earth is the pit of Tartarus. It forms a sphere that contains everything divided into two hemispheres. In the top half, live the gods and men, and in the bottom, the Titans (Atsma).

Divisions Of Middleworld (e.g., 4 Quarters, 3 Triads, 8 Sections)

In Norse mythology Midgard was divided vaguely into four different sections. Midgard was the land of Man and surrounded by a vast ocean. Beyond the ocean was the land of Jotunheim, where the giants dwelled. Their citadel was called Utgard. North of Midgard was Nidavellir where the dwarves lived, and south of Midgard was Svartalfheim where the dark elves lived (Crossley-Holland xx-xxv).

The best division of the Greek middleworld would be the land, sea, and sky. The land, deified in Gaea, is defined best as a disk that is surrounded by the encompassing waters of Okeanos. Okeanos would be the sea, the deep-running river that holds the land together. The sky, deified by Ouranos, is the dome that covers the sea and the land. This fits within ADF cosmology, specifically with Ceisiwr Serith’s prayer: “The waters support and surround us / The land extends about us / The sky stretches out above us” (Serith).

Nether/Underworld

The Underworld is the Land of the Dead and the chthonic deities. In ADF the Underworld is where we direct our call when we’re seeking to gain the wisdom of the Ancestors and the Deities that dwell there alongside them. In Norse mythology this is Niflheim, and the citadel is Hel. Hel is the realm of the dead for those who didn’t die valiantly, and those who are considered evil pass through Hel to die again in Niflheim, the world of the dead. There is also Valhalla, which is technically in the Upperworld, but is the place for the warriors who die in battle to go (Crossley-Holland xx-xxv).

In Greek mythology the Underworld is where Hades and Persephone rule over the dead. It is divided into multiple realms for the dead to dwell, based on how they lived in life, including Tartarus and the Elysium Fields (Atsma). Some interesting similarities between the Greek and Norse Underworlds are both are said to be far to the north, both have a river that separates them from the realm of the living, both are in some way guarded by dogs, and both can substitute the name of the ruler (Hel/Hades) for the name of the place.

Fire

In ADF we hallow the Fire and call to it as a Gate between the worlds. In ritual it becomes more than mere flame and becomes one of the ways that the Kindreds hear our words more clearly and are able to receive the sacrifices we send them. Fire is an important part of Greek culture and resonates well within ADF cosmology. It is how the sacrifices the Folk make actually get delivered to the Gods. This sacred fire is deified in Hestia. She is the sacrificial fire and the hearth fire, dwelling both in the homes of man and on Mt. Olympus. Because she is the sacrificial fire, every time sacrifice is made, part of it goes to her. She is honored as the first- and last-born of the Olympians, and because she chose to continue serving the hearts and hearths of man (Hesiod Theogony) (Atsma).

In Norse culture fire is seen as important, especially when used to send off the dead. The dead in Norse myths, for example, Sigurd and Baldr, had funeral pyres that were lit. A similarity to Greek culture is the fire being seen as a way to send sacrifices to the deities. Perhaps this is why it made sense to burn the dead, because if they were going to Valhalla, then they were going to the realms of the gods, and could be delivered there via fire, the same way the sacrifices were.

Well

In ADF we hallow the Well and call to it as a Gate between the worlds. The liturgical phrasing that is often used is “Let our voices resound in the Well” meaning that we’re calling through this Gate so that, like the Fire, the Kindreds might hear our words more clearly. In Norse mythology there are three Wells that immediately come to mind. They are said to be at the roots of Yggdrasil, presumably feeding the World Tree. There is the Well of Memory (Mimir) where Odin gives up an eye to gain the knowledge and wisdom that is there. This is also where Heimdall leaves his horn until Ragnarok comes. There is the Well of Fate (Urd), where the Norns live and carry out their business. There is also the well where the dragon Nidhogg lives (Hvergelmir). It is from this place that he delivers the insults to be carried by the squirrel Ratatosk up to the Asgard (Crossley-Holland xx-xxv).

Okeanos is the “deep-running water” and “completely encircling” river of the world. All waters are said to draw their source of water from Okeanos, all rivers, streams, seas, and deep wells (Homer Iliad). This fits into ADF cosmology because we view the Well as the deep, chthonic waters that are the source of all waters, and that all waters are by their very nature sacred. The Underworld is said to lie on the far shore of the River Okeanos, which also continues the theme that the Well is in some way connected with how we communicate with the Ancient Wise. In this case, one would have to cross the river (reach through the Well) to gain their wisdom. The theme of the druidic number nine is also carried through in the waters of Okeanos. He is said to have “nine loops of silver-swirling waters” that split off to form the rivers of the world (Hesiod Theogony).

Tree

In ADF the Tree serves as the axis mundi, as the crossroads between the worlds. We hallow it and call for it to open as a Gate between the worlds so that we can feel connected to all the worlds around us. It serves not only as the center of our world, but aligns to the centers of all the worlds allowing our words, actions, and sacrifices to be more easily received by the Kindreds. In aligns our world with theirs so we can feel closer to them.

In Greek mythology the omphalos is the center of the world. It was established as such when Zeus wanted to find the center and sent his two eagles to fly in opposite directions around the world. Where they met, at the Delphi, was considered to be the Center, and the omphalos, the stone that was given to Kronos to swallow in place of Zeus, was placed at that spot at the Oracle of Delphi. The omphalos is said to allow direct communication with the gods. There were also “many sanctuaries in later Greek culture centered on a sacred tree” and ancient Hellenistic celebrants did dances in order to establish a connection between the worlds (Jones 6).

In Norse mythology Yggdrasil, the ash tree, is the world tree. It is considered to be the center of the worlds. Its branches stretch over all the worlds, and its roots grow through all the worlds. The squirrel, Ratatosk, is able to use Yggdrasil as a pathway to travel between the worlds and deliver messages. It truly serves as an axis mundi in the cosmology of the Norse myths (Crossley-Holland xx-xxv).

 

  1. To what extent do you think we can offer conjectures about Indo-European myths in general? Are the common themes strong enough that the myths seem like variations? Or are the differences so powerful that the themes are less important than the cultural variations? (minimum 300 words)

When looking at Indo-European mythology I think it is absolutely fascinating how there are similar themes that present themselves across the cultures and ages. In Comparative Mythology, Puhvel makes an excellent argument for the similarities between the various Indo-European cultures to be more than mere coincidence. The cultures seem to have a similar myth cycle. Campbell makes similar arguments in his presentation of the monomyth in The Hero With A Thousand Faces when describing the archetypes and trials in the hero’s journey.

The archetypes that present themselves in the various myths give us a wealth of information that can be used to help reconstruct myths, or at least give us general information about a specific culture. For example, in cultures that are missing archetypical myths, such as a creation myth for the Celts, or any wealth of Gaulish information, the lack of a myth doesn’t mean that one didn’t exist, simply that we don’t have the records of it anymore. There are archetypes that cause some deities to seem extremely similar, though they have different aspects. These deities are distinct and different beings with similarities that exist due to the common themes pervasive throughout human life, and the great unanswered questions that are raised as we examine the human condition. The deities in each culture fill the roles of the archetypes that are needed.

I think the themes across the myths are strong enough to allow us to postulate what missing myths might have looked like; however, the differences are also very important in giving us information about individual cultures. If we accept there is a common myth cycle across the Indo-European cultures, then it is the differences between the myths that will teach us the most about a particular culture’s values. Not all pantheons will have a deity that takes on all the same roles, or even a role at all. This can help to tell us what roles were often combined in the thoughts of the people in that culture, or what roles didn’t hold value in a particular culture. The similarities of the myth cycle, and the differences in the specific myths allow us to study what kinds of things were important to the peoples of the different cultures.

We can also look at language to see the similarities in various deities. For example, the Thundering Sky God is a strong archetype present across the Indo-European cultures, and in Greek myth Zeus “is in name identical with the old Vedic sky-god Dyaus (Indo-European *Dyews ‘Bright Sky’)” (Puhvel 130). Similarly the Norse Thor shares a root with the Gaulish Taranis, both reducing to *thunar-, meaning thunder (169). The similarities in the roots of the deity names are another point towards showing these archetypical roles being filled across Indo-European cultures as they are needed.

All in all, I think the similarities in myth cycles and language point towards the commonalities being more than just coincidence. It seems likely that all of the Indo-European cultures came from some base culture that then spread out and painted its way across the continent, sharing the language, myths, and values as it went. With that hypothesis we can use what we know of the myths and the languages to explore and compare the differences in the cultures and the values that they held.

 

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Puhvel, Jaan. Comparative Mythology. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1987. Print.

Rees, Alwyn D., and B. R. Rees. Celtic Heritage: Ancient Tradition in Ireland and Wales. London: Thames and Hudson, 1961. Print.

Sephton, John, George Ainslie Hight, and W. G. Collingwood, trans. Viking Sagas: Erik the Red, Grettir the Strong, and Kormac the Skald. St Petersburg, FL: Red and Black. 2008 Print.

Serith, Ceisiwr. “Blessings, Honor and Worship to the Holy Ones.” ADF Neopagan Druidism. Adf.org. Web. 25 Apr. 2012. <http://www.adf.org/rituals/chants/land-sea-sky/blessings-honor-worship.html>.

Squire, Charles. “The Gods in Exile.” Celtic Myths and Legends. New York: Gramercy, 1994. 132-52. Print.

Sturluson, Snorri. The Prose Edda. Trans. Arthur G. Brodeur. Vol. 5. London: Oxford UP, 1923 Scandinavian Classics. New Northvegr Center. 2009. Web. 14 Apr. 2012 <http://www.northvegr.org/>.

Liturgy 1

  1. Describe the purpose and function of ritual. (minimum 300 words)

In general, the purpose of ritual is to form a relationship and connect with the divine, so that we then get something back from the divine. In the case of ADF, this means forming a *ghosti relationship with the Three Kindreds. We are praising them and offering to them so that we might receive their blessings. We are seeking to not only to receive blessing for ourselves and our kin, but also to “awaken that same divine spark in our own souls so that we can bless the world in return” (Corrigan “ADF Outline”).

There are also specific purposes for holding rituals. For example, when observing the eight High Days, we are holding ritual essentially in honor of the seasons. There are various deities who can be associated with each High Day, but the when and the why for the ritual is due to the occurrence of the world changing around us. The structure and predictability allows us to build community with those around us and also build a relationship with the Kindreds (Corrigan “Intentions”).

Another reason to hold ritual is for Rites of Passage. These are an important part of any religious tradition, being able to properly honor and mark those big moments in life: birth, death, coming of age, marriage, divorce, etc. These rituals invite the Kindreds to share in those important moments in our lives and also invite the community to take part (Corrigan “Intentions”).

The third reason to hold ritual, because we Druids work in threes, is for personal work. This can be in the form of simple devotional work, praise offerings, or offerings of thanks. It can be to seek out the help of patrons or other magical allies. It can be to do trance work or energy work. These are all valid reasons for ritual, and each have a purpose (Corrigan “Intentions).

So, in holding ritual, the participants are looking for help with a task, for a relationship with the divine, and/or building a community around shared beliefs or practices. I think in pagan traditions, as in many others, there is a desire to blend our religious practices and beliefs into our lives as much as possible. It therefore becomes difficult to separate out the magical from the mundane, and it is through setting out specific liturgy and rituals that we are able to do that.

  1. Describe some of the roles individuals might take on within the context of ritual. (minimum 100 words)

In ritual, as each step in the Core Order is worked through, there is a person performing the magical acts surrounding the steps.  That being said, one role that an individual could take in ritual is either reciting the words for a step, or performing the magical act, or preferably both, since words hold power.  This could be either Bard or Clergy. It is certainly not necessary for the same person to take on every magical act in a ritual.  For instance, it may be preferable to have one set of folks purifying and sanctifying the space and the folk, another set calling to the Kindreds, another set taking the Omen, and so on.  Another role that an individual could take would be the role of Sacrificer.  I’ve found in larger rituals it’s helpful to keeps things moving without losing energy to have one person designated to give the offerings, whether it’s libating wine, pouring oil of the fire, or lighting incense.

  1. Describe the concepts of the Center and the Gates in ADF’s Standard Liturgical Outline. (minimum 300 words)

The Center of the World is what is created in order to bring the focus of the Kindreds to us, and to allow our focus to extend beyond the mundane world. In many Indo-European cultures this is symbolized by the Fire, Well, and Tree, however only the fire is consistent through all Indo-European cultures. For, example, the Vedic culture there is only a fire, and in the Hellenic culture, rather than a tree there is an omphalos. However, the Center is still represented in these varying symbols. In any case, the idea is that as we create the Center of the World, we are aligning the Center of our world to the Center of all worlds. It is this alignment that allows us to communicate with the spirits on all levels.

The Gates are opened into what can be called Sacred Space both in our own minds and in the world(s). When the Gates are open the magic can flow more easily and the Kindreds have an easier time reaching us so that they can hear us and bless us (Brooks). When the Gates are opened, normally a Gatekeeper is requested to aid in the opening The gatekeeper is a being who often takes the role of psychopomp, which is a being that can walk between the world, or exist in all the worlds. One Gatekeeper who is invited to aid in the work is Hermes in Hellenic rituals. Through studying the lore we know that Hermes was able to transverse the worlds as Zeus’s messenger between the Upper-, Middle-, and Underworlds. In our grove we invite Garanos Crane to aid us in Opening the Gates. He is an example of a being that exists in all the Worlds. He has one foot in the water, one foot on the land, and an eye cast to the Sky, where he soars beyond the ninth wave.

  1. Discuss why ADF rituals need not have a defined outer boundary, or “circle” and the sacralization of space in ritual. (minimum 100 words)

All of the earth is sacred, and so we do not need to “create” that sacred space. What we do do in ADF ritual is recreate the cosmos to bring the attention of the Kindreds to us. They are already there, and the space is already sacred, we are more creating a space, like a room, that makes it easier for them to hear us and for us to hear them. It’s like filtering out the distractions of the mundane world. Most often in our rituals a boundary is still loosely defined, because we stand in a circle-ish shape, and this helps with visualization of the Center of the World, but it is not a locked out boundary, rather is more permeable than that. In ADF ritual people can come and go as they please. This helps because if someone has to depart for some reason (bathroom, children, etc.) they can leave with minimal disruption to the folk around them.

  1. Discuss the Earth Mother and her significance in ADF liturgy. (minimum 100 words)

The Earth Mother is a common thread through Indo-European mythology. In ADF ritual she is honored both first and last, and is given any and all unused offerings. This is fitting because while we arguably cannot be surrounded by the other aspects of our religion at all times, the Earth Mother is ever present, and existed before we arrived here, and will exist beyond our parting. So it is right that we should honor Her and respect Her, because she is our great provider and gives a home. The Earth Mother is sometimes addressed simply as such, or as the All-Mother, but in specific Indo-European cultures she is given a name, such as the Hellenic Gaea (who is rightly a Titan, and came before the Olympians, who are most commonly worshiped). Some people and Groves also prefer to think of the Earth Mother as a more localized spirit, specific to their place of worship. All of these ways of interpreting the honor that should be given to the Earth Mother are valid.  Another reason that the Earth Mother holds such significance in ADF liturgy is because not only is she generally the root and mother of us all, she is also very important in RDNA, one of the prominent organizations that ADF grew out of.

  1. Discuss the ritual significance of Fire and Water in ADF liturgy. (minimum 100 words)

Fire and Water are the two main ways of giving and receiving praise and blessings in ADF ritual. As the Fire and the Well connect us to the Kindreds, so do they connect the Kindred back to us. So when we make offerings, it is generally done in one of two ways. When an offering is made to the fire, the essence of that offering is transformed and sent up as smoke to the Heavens. When and offering is made to the Well, it is sunk in the waters. In ancient times this would more likely have been a natural well or river, and the offerings would have literally sunk down into the depths and darkness, to the place where the Ancestors dwell.

When seeking a return flow of blessings, this too is done through fire and water. In purifying the sacred space, incense is often lit, and wafted about each ritual participant, to grant the purity and blessings of the Kindreds to the participant. In the same way, after the Omen is taken and the folk call for the return flow, this is done through water. The folk call for the Waters, which are by their very nature sacred, and ask the Kindreds to fill them with their blessings, which are then drunk to bring those blessings into our body.

  1. Discuss the origins of the Fire, Well and Tree, and the significance of each in ADF liturgy. (minimum 100 words for each of the Fire, Well and Tree)

The Fire is a great power. It brings light in the darkness. It brings warmth in the cold. It transforms our offerings into smoke that rises to the Heavens, carrying it to the Gods. The Fire is what brings the shining light of the Ouranic powers down on to us, to bathe us in wisdom, light and warmth. The Fire is prominent in many creation myths, as being something that the Gods had and the humans needed to make them “man.” In Greek myth Prometheus convinced Zeus to not destroy the race of man in addition to giving them fire (“Prometheus”). This fire was needed not only to help mankind survive, but also allowed them to burn offerings to the Gods. In ADF we use it as a piece of our sacred center because of its prominence in ancient worship and because it is a transformer and through it was can send our offerings to the Kindreds and allow them suffuse us in their blessings.

The Well contains the sacred waters and connects us to the dark cosmic and chthonic powers below. The Well connects to the underworld and allows the wisdom of our Ancestors to flow up through the blood of the Earth to fill us, sustain us, and nourish us. The idea concept of the Well being the connection to the Ancestors comes from the idea that in many myths the dead needs to cross water in order to move on. For example, in Greek myth the river Akherosian must be crossed with the help of Charon in order to reach the Underworld where the Ancestors dwell (“Charon). The concept of the Well and the origin of it comes from the idea that in Norse mythology Yggdrasil was rooted deep within the Well and from the Well came the Ancestors, our own fate, and great power. This is described in the Poetic Edda in the Grimnismol (Hare). In ADF we use it as a piece of our sacred center because it connects us to the Kindreds, and through archeological findings we know that metal was often offered to rivers and wells in ancient times.

The Tree is the crossroads. Its roots stretch deep into the Well and travel out through the world. Its branches reach up into the Heavens, where the primal fire dwells, and cascade around us here in the Mid Realm. The trunk is the center of the universe, connecting the fire and the water. The tree is like a great line of communication that connects us to the Ancestors below, the Nature Spirits here, and the Shining Ones above. It transverses the worlds and connects us to all beings. In ADF we use the tree as a piece of our sacred center because it is what holds the other pieces together. We use it as a crossroads to open the lines of communication and hold them open so that we may commune with the spirits (Paradox).

  1. Discuss the Outdwellers and their significance in ritual (or not, as the case may be). (minimum 100 words)

The Outdwellers are a rather unique feature to ADF ritual as opposed to other Neo-pagan rituals. Since we don’t form boundary to separate ourselves out from the world completely, there is the chance that being who would disrupt our ritual may interfere. So, the treaty with the Outdwellers is the part of ritual where we make a peace offering to beings whose purposes are cross with ours so that they will leave us be for us to perform ritual. I prefer to also think of the Outdwellers not only as beings who would distract from the work, but also as the feelings and emotions that have no place in the ritual work. When I make offerings to the Outdwellers I try to remove all things that would distract me from my purpose in ritual space. That means stepping aside from thoughts that resonate in the mundane world so that I can focus on the work at hand.

  1. Describe the intention and function of the Three Kindreds invocations, and give a short description of each of the Kindreds. (minimum 100 words for each of the Three Kindreds)

The Three Kindreds are the Ancestors, the Nature Spirits, and the Shining Ones. The idea behind the invocations is that we are welcoming them and asking them to listen to us in our ritual. We’re going to give them gifts, and would like to receive blessings in return (the *ghosti) relationship. We invoke them to get their attention specifically so we can give them praise.

The Ancestors are the Mighty Dead; the Ancient Wise who have gone before, and as such they have knowledge beyond my comprehension that can help me on my path, my journey. There are three ways that I connect to the Ancestors. There are ancestors of my blood, ancestors of my country/culture, and ancestors of my hearth. The Ancestors of my blood are those who I’m directing related to: grandparents, great-grand parents, and so on. The cultural Ancestors are all the people who have helped to shape our world and culture, and made it what it is today, whether through scientific discoveries, or work in the humanities, or through exploration. By honoring the cultural ancestors I connect both to the culture of humanity as a whole, as well as to sub-cultures of people and professions that have shaped out society. The Ancestors of my hearth are those who are reflected in the lore, often as heroes. They are the people who’ve experienced the world, strove to make it a better place, and because of that have had their stories told to millions.

I see the Nature Spirits in two broad categories. Those beings of nature that we can see, and those we can’t. The first type of Nature Spirit is the more obvious. They are the creatures that inhabit our world: the birds, fish, insects, reptiles and mammals, but they are also the trees, rivers, rocks, plants, dirt, and oceans. They are all part of the ecosystem that makes our world work together and function, and that is a large part of why they deserve honor. The second type of Nature Spirit, the kind you can’t see, are the mythical beasts. This incorporates creatures that live hidden in our world, are described in myths, or take on roles beyond that of their mundane counterparts. These nature spirits are those who are our spirit guides, our totems, or those to deliver omens. I see this second group of Nature Spirits as the tenders of the first.

The Shining Ones, the bright and numinous beings, are the Deities. They are the Gods talked about in myth and legend. They each have a domain that allows them to connect to each other and/or the mundane world. There are those who work in the Upper Realm, Gods of the sky, air, sun, wind, etc. or those who are specifically said to dwell in the Upper Realm. There are those who work in the mid-realm, like Gods of the forest, hearth, commerce, war, etc. And then there are those who work in the Underworld, generally considered to be the Gods of death. In this sense, calling them the Shining Ones, is generally a misnomer, since not all those Gods would “shine,” but the idea that they all radiate power fits.

  1. Describe other possible models for the “Filling Out the Cosmic Picture” sections. (minimum 100 words)

The common way that we fill out the cosmic picture in ADF is by invoking the Shining Ones, Nature Spirits, and Ancestors to join us in ritual space (Corrigan “Standard”). In this way all Shining Ones are called forth at once. A different way this could be done is by calling the beings based on the realms that they dwell in, such as the Underworld, Mid Realm, and Heavens. Thus, one could first call for all the beings of the Underworld to join in ritual. One would address each of the Three Kindreds residing in the Underworld, rather than assigning a Kindred to a place. In a similar fashion, one could call based on the Land, Sea, and Sky. I think the way that you invite the Three Kindreds to join in ritual and fill out the cosmic picture depends on the hearth culture that you’re working in. Some ways of calling out make more sense than others. For example, in Norse mythology, there are nine realms that spirits dwell in. It may make sense in this case to fill out the cosmic picture by calling out the beings of each realm rather than in other groupings.

  1. Discuss how one would choose the focus (or focuses) for the Key Offerings. (minimum 100 words)

The Key Offerings should be chosen after the purpose of the ritual is chosen. If the ritual is a High Day, and specific deities are associated with the culture that the High Day is being celebrated in, then the offerings made should reflect the purpose and values of that High Day and that Deity of the Occasion. If the ritual being held is more of a general blessings ritual with no specific deity being called, then what kinds of general offerings were made to all the spirits being offered to? For instance, knowing that Apollo in Greek myth valued bay or laurel, that is what you could offer to him specifically, but if the ritual was for a general blessing in the Hellenic hearth culture, then oil, wine, or barley would be acceptable because those were common offerings made in Greek ritual. If the rite being held is for a specific purpose, such as healing, then what kinds of offerings do the healing Deities being called on ask for? Or, more generally speaking, what kinds of materials or tool would be beneficial in a healing and could be offered? So, overall, it is more important to identify the purpose of the ritual, and the Key Offerings will follow.

  1. Discuss your understanding of Sacrifice, and its place in ADF liturgy. (minimum 100 words)

Sacrifice is literally “to make sacred,” from the Latin roots sacer (sacred) and facere (to make), so in ritual, when making a sacrifice, you are taking the thing that is being offered and making it sacred so it can be a gift to the Kindreds. It applies well with the general idea that a sacrifice is a gift to the Gods of something that is being removed from human usage.  So, a sacrifice should then be something that has meaning to both the person making the sacrifice, and the being that they are sacrificing to; it should be a gift. When this gift is given part of the *ghosti relationship is formed. We, the folk, have given of something to the Kindreds, and they will in return give us something back. Some examples of this are the Return Flow or the shared meal. A sacrifice is made and we are then given something in return to bless us and sustain us (Thomas).  The shared meal can take a few different forms.  In a Dumb Supper (normally this occurs at Samhain, or another celebration of the Ancestors) a food plate is prepared specifically for the Ancestors and the Folk, or the family, eat in silence at the table with the Ancestors.  The idea behind the silence is that we speak all throughout the year, and so at the Dumb Supper we are to listen to the Ancestors, and we we speak it is only about them.  The potluck feast after a ritual is another example of the shared meal.  During this time, after we have tended the relationship we have with the Kindreds, we are coming together as a community to share a meal with our fellows and the Kindreds.  Part of the meal is offered to them, and the reset is shared amongst the Folk in fellowship.

  1. Discuss your understanding of the Omen. (minimum 100 words)

The Omen is the part of the ritual where the Seer asks questions of the Kindred to some end. In our personal Grove rites we ask three questions: 1) What is our path? 2) On what should the Grove focus until the next Druid Moon? and 3) On what should each individual focus until the next Druid Moon. I think these demonstrate one way of taking the omen. The Seer is asking for guidance as a whole: where have we been, where are we now, and where are we going? He is then asking for a focus to get us where we are going on two levels: the level of the folk and the personal level. I think it’s important that when the Omen is taken that it resonate with each person present. By deliberately asking for an individual focus, this call for that. Some other common ways of taking the Omen are by asking for what each Kindred offers as a blessing (or a warning, in the case of a bad omen). Some ask whether or not the offerings have been accepted as the first question and some assume that since the offerings were made in good faith, that they have been accepted.

  1. Discuss your understanding of the Blessing Cup, or “Return Flow”. (minimum 100 words)

The Return Flow is a very important part of the *ghosti relationship that we share with the Kindreds. By sacrificing we have given of ourselves and that means that something must now be given in return. As far as what is given in the Return Flow, what we are drinking from the Blessing Cup, is determined by the Omens. One of the common ways of taking omens is by specifically asking what each Kindred blesses the folk with. By asking these questions it is then determined what we are receiving in return from the Kindreds. For example, sometimes the Kindreds offer us wisdom, gifts, or advise us of new beginnings, and sometimes they caution us against difficulties to come.  These omens, of course, depend on the divination system used and the Seer in question.  In any case however, when the Folk drink of the Blessing Cup, they take the energies of the Kindreds into themselves. Following the Return Flow is either a working if required by the rite, or the beginning of restoration of the ordinary. The Return Flow is the first step in “powering down” from all the energy that has been circling around in a ritual. The folk take of the blessings and that thereby takes them out of the space. If there is a working to be done then the folk have been filled with the power of the Kindreds when they drank from the Blessing Cup and so have enough energy to be able to complete the working. If there is not, then the folk take what they need of the Return Flow and, as with all else left unused, give the rest back to the Earth Mother.

  1. Describe possible cultural variances for elements discussed in questions 3 through 14 above. (minimum 100 words)

The cultural variances to the above questions are what give a ritual its flavor. One of the places where there is often cultural variance is in the creation of the Sacred Center with the Fire, Well, and Tree. In Vedic culture Agni is a deity of fire, and it is his fire that accepts the Sacrifices. A Vedic ritual will have three fires associated with Agni, the domestic fire, the ritual fire, and the solar fire, rather than the Fire, Well and Tree (Elout). This means that in Vedic ritual there may only be the Fire, and in that culture, the Fire connects all things and so is all that is necessary. In Hellenic culture Zeus found Delphi to be the Center of the world, and it is designated by the omphalos (navel). Thus, in Hellenic rites the Tree can beis replaced with the omphalos. In Roman rites, the Tree is often replaced with the Doorway of Janus. Janus is the god of the threshold, and thus stands at the Crossroads and the Center of the Worlds. Another variance that takes place regarding Hellenic ritual is the placement of the Earth Mother. Traditionally in a Hellenic ritual, Hestia is always honored first and last, thus when working through the opening prayers, Hestia may be honored prior to the Earth Mother in order to keep consistent with that hearth practice.

  1. Describe how ADF liturgy corresponds with your personal or group practice. (minimum 100 words)

I have found the standard Core Order to be a bit cumbersome for personal work that takes the form of devotionals at my home shrine; however, I enjoy the feeling that I get from following the ritual format in other work. For instance, at least once a week I like to do a full Core Order ritual (minor adjustments made for my Hellenic hearth). I find it to be very powerful for creating and maintaining a sacred and creative space. While I do devotionals more to offer praise to the Kindreds, I prefer the structure of the Core Order when I’m doing workings at my hearth, such as writing for religious purposes. I also perform rituals that are more of a reconstructionist bent when I’m celebrating a specific Hellenic Feast Day that has no easy equivalent to general Indo-European Feast Days.

Being a member of Three Cranes Grove, in our High Day rituals we follow a full Core Order, though our Druid Moons use a modified Core Order that have the Gates being opened first, and then having the folk enter. I like the variation of ritual formats that I experience because while I find the Core Order to be powerful and meaningful, I think I would get caught up too easily in “going through the motions” if that’s all I did. So, for me, I think the variation is better. It leads each individual type to be stronger for the experience of the many.

Additional Question: Is it possible that we give offerings to the Kindreds for what they have already given us? Is it presumptuous to think that if we give gifts to the Kindreds that they must be returned?

I think it’s a totally fair assumption that we are giving offerings to the Kindreds for things that they’ve given us. The nature of the relationship is that we can never give enough thanks for what they give us. This means that we give what we can, when we can, and from our hearts. It is the kind of close relationship where you don’t worry about who gave first, or keeping track to make sure you’re even. A relationship of love doesn’t require that things be even, only that each give as he can in a truly meaningful way. It’s like getting a birthday card from a child. They drew it and spent time on it, and it means so much more than any store bought card they could have gotten.

This also means that in giving gifts, because we’re not keeping score, we don’t need to expect every gift be returned. All will come around in the end, and if it doesn’t, then just as a one-sided friendship eventually fades, so too will that relationship with that particular Deity. In this sense, it is also important to remember that not all gifts are tangible. A child can give little to a parent beyond joy, hope, love, and wonder. And for most parents that is more than enough to maintain that relationship. So too is our relationship with the Kindreds.
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